In Asia, home to tens of millions of Buddhists, being vegetarian is simply good practice in expressing religious beliefs by eating less meat and reducing the chance of harming animals. That partly explains why vegetarianism is popular, especially in India, Taiwan and Southeast Asian nations.
And while some people pile their plates with vegetables and fruits in the name of dieting, there is a broader emerging trend toward health consciousness across Asia. Eating foods that are less processed and plant-based is seen as a smart choice. A reduced risk of cancer and high blood pressure, along with better skin, are among the health benefits for people who adapt their diet and lifestyle to become vegetarians.
Chitchanok Cherdchoochart became a vegetarian in mid-2014, mainly for ethical reasons, even though none of her family members follow the diet.
"It was just uncomfortable for me to consume animals but health is a bonus," the 23-year-old yoga teacher told Asia Focus. "I feel like it's really good for the digestive system and I'm less lethargic throughout the day."
Ms Chitchanok and her vegetarian friend, Mika Apichatsakol, sometimes prepare their own meals, which they say are not time-consuming and involve "even less prepping" than meat dishes. Ms Mika, 23, is also an environmentalist and that "subconsciously" played a part in her decision to make a change two years ago.
"Knowing that the meat industry is one of the worst polluters in the world turns me off about consuming meat," the Bangkok-based journalist told Asia Focus.
And while some people turn vegetarian because of health problems, that wasn't the case for Ms Mika, who said it was just something that evolved "organically".
"It wasn't health problems that led me to give up meat. I've always been healthy. Even though I was raised eating meat, I ate a lot of fruits, veggies, tofu and beans -- very typical of Japanese diets, as my mother is Japanese," she said.
"Cutting out meat simply made me feel even cleaner and leaner. I think my skin has got better as well. And I can play sports just as well as before. So the vegetarian diet isn't lacking in energy."
More Asian men are also paying more attention to health and nutrition, said Susianto Tseng, president of the Vegan Society of Indonesia and a vegetarian for 23 years. The 43-year-old author of The Miracle of Vegan stopped eating meat while he was studying chemistry at the University of Gadjah Mada.
Veganism is a more ambitious vegetarian regime that excludes meat, eggs, dairy products and all other animal-derived ingredients. Many vegans also do not eat foods that are processed using animal products, such as refined white sugar and some wines. Some vegans also choose to avoid clothes that utilise products such as leather and fur.
Pursuing a vegan lifestyle requires a strong commitment but those who maintain the discipline swear by its benefits. "Going vegan saved my life," former US president Bill Clinton said earlier this year. Many celebrities, from actress Natalie Portman to singer Miley Cyrus, are also vegans.
Dr Susianto explained his choice in a recent interview with the Jakarta Post: "At the time I carried out some analysis on food and discovered many toxic substances in meat. Being a vegetarian can prolong your life. Meat produces acids that are harmful to the body, while plants produce the opposite," he said.
"People who eat meat and smoke have a 70% chance of having a heart attack, and a 50% chance if they don't smoke. But it will reduce significantly to 39%, should they be vegetarian but it will continue to drop to 14% if they are vegan."
GROWING NUMBERS
Dr Susianto, who is also the coordinator for the International Vegetarian Union in Asia Pacific, estimated that there are 2 million vegetarians each in Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore.
"In Indonesia, about 85% of our population is Muslim. Being vegetarian is good for their health," he told Asia Focus in a telephone interview from Jakarta.
"The increase (in Asia) has been seen over the past 10 years," said Dr Susiano, adding that major factors driving the high growth in Indonesia were nutrition and health concerns, mostly on the prevention side.
"A good indicator (of the increase) is the number of vegetarian restaurants which is growing very fast," he said. "Roughly, there 2,000 vegetarian restaurants in Asean, mostly in Singapore, while Taiwan has the highest number of vegetarian restaurants in Asia at 4,000. Of the 1,000-plus vegetarian restaurants in Indonesia, most are vegan, and about 10% are in the capital."
Outside of India where about 29% of the population is vegetarian, against a global average of less than 5%, Taiwan is veggie heaven in Asia with about 13% following the diet.
According to Forbes magazine, a recent analysis of hundreds of customer reviews about vegetarian restaurants on the popular travel portal Trip Advisor found five Asian cities -- Taipei, Delhi, Seoul, Ho Chi Minh City and Chiang Mai -- among the world's top 10 vegetarian spots. The other five were London, Prague, Berlin, New York and Portland. The rankings were based on the highest average rating, percentage of 4- and 5-star reviews and the number of vegetarian restaurants per capita in 250 cities.
Novel Jeremia, the co-owner of the Nebula restaurant chain in Indonesia, says he sees the market opportunity in Indonesia even though he is not vegan. With three branches on Bali and one in Jakarta, Nebula has an extensive menu that includes fish, chicken and other items, but also healthy food and products that do not contain meat.
"In Indonesia, basically the market of health-conscious people is getting bigger," he told Asia Focus on the phone. "Jakarta has a few communities of vegans. It's a growing market in Jakarta. From my point of view, those people are trying to be in a better shape.
"The number of people who are on diets and want to be in better shape is growing but they don't have a knowledge of healthy food and mixing various types of fruits to make into very healthy and delicious meals. We want to try to open their minds. Healthy food can also be tasteful at some point for people who do yoga and training in the gym."
In Bangkok, Anotai vegetarian restaurant has been operating for 17 years, with all of the food and bakery items vegetarian. Owner Anotai Gongvatana also owns an organic farm that allows her to guarantee the quality of ingredients and materials used by the restaurant to prepare vegetarian meals for customers.
"I took a cooking class and wanted to cook for myself since quality vegetable salad was not easy to find back then," she recalled while talking to Asia Focus.
"That's why the restaurant was opened. It was a niche market at that time but I thought it was really challenging and also we are not in a market that many people are doing, so the opportunity existed for us to grab a share."
The restaurant's menu lists several Thai dishes, along with organic salads, pastas and herbal juices. All the "meats" are actually TVP or texturised vegetable protein. Anotai's wide range of homemade desserts includes banana cupcakes served warm with vanilla ice cream and molten chocolate cake with sherry sauce.
At present, the 14-table restaurant is very busy and reservations are needed on weekends. Thais make up 70% of the customers and foreigners the rest. "The number of vegetarians has been surging significantly," said Ms Anotai. "The young generation looks for food that has lots of vegetables for the sake of their own health, and also foods that are less processed, use minimal chemicals and are not so complicated to prepare."
Pornnapat "May" Lawasut, chef and owner of May Veggie Home which has been offering 100% vegan cuisine since 2013, said traffic at her restaurant surged by 50% over the past year as consumers started to know the restaurant. However, up to 80% of the customers are foreigners including expatriates and visitors from Asian countries, especially Taiwan, India and Hong Kong.
"Thais so far are not very aware about vegan food. Also, some of them have a perception that most vegetarian food has only flour and carbs," she told Asia Focus.
Most of the Thai customers at her vegan restaurant in central Bangkok are people with health problems such as cancer, high cholesterol, and kidney-related issues. "So they have turned to vegetarian food as doctors recommended them to or because of their own belief that veggies can help treat their disease."
Established in 2013, May Veggie Home won a Certificate of Excellence from Trip Advisor in 2015 and 2016. Its growing reputation overseas has prompted foreign business owners to approach her for a franchise licence to operate in other markets, Ms Pornnapat said.
"We have positioned ourselves as an alternative for customers who eat meats in their normal life but once or twice a week they will look for vegetarian meals," she said.
Even though Thais and Asians have become more heath-conscious, consumption of vegetables and fruits among Thais and their Asian peers is still below the 400 grammes per head per day as recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), according to Asst Prof Chaniphun Butryee of the Institute of Nutrition at Mahidol University.
"Statistics show that Thais are eating vegetables and fruits more often nowadays but the amount they consume on average is still below the WHO's recommendation for disease prevention," the nutritionist told Asia Focus.
Only 18% of the Thai population consumes 400 grammes or more of vegetables and fruits per day, while 40% of the Americans meet the WHO standard. On average, Thai men consume 268 grammes per day and women 280 grammes, compared with 310 grammes in the UK, she said.
However, people who follow vegetarian diets also have to carefully monitor their bodies. Eating only vegetarian food for five years could lead to health problems such as a lack of Vitamin B12 and calcium. B12, which is required for blood cell formation, is available only in meats and lack of the vitamin for a long time could cause anaemia. At the same time, seafood such as shrimp and squid contains lots of zinc and copper that help generate co-factor enzymes for body immunity.
Vegetarians also need to be aware of the risk of lack of calcium because they don't drink cow milk, as soymilk does not contain much calcium, she added.
Nonetheless, Asst Prof Chaniphun noted that there are various dietary supplements and fortified food products available for vegetarians in the market, such as zinc-fortified breakfast cereals and fruit juices that contain extra calcium. Tempeh and seaweed are also good cooking ingredients to add B12.
Dr Susianto from Indonesia agreed, saying tempeh is nutritionally rich, with 100 grammes containing 3.9 microgrammes of B12, compared to only 3 microgrammes in beef.
"For Indonesia and Southeast Asia, we are very lucky that we have tempeh which is the best source of protein," said Dr Susianno, who received a doctorate from the University of Indonesia for his research on tempeh, adding that seaweed from Japan could also help maintain B12 levels in the human body.
Ms Mika and Ms Chitchanok shared the same view about health concerns, saying that some people appear to need food supplements if they do not eat balanced diets within the realm of vegetarianism.
"I do believe that you can be perfectly well-off as a vegetarian without supplements, said Ms Mika. "It takes more effort and research, though. It's like a meat-eater eating nothing but steak. He's going to need supplements as well."
"I think that you need vitamins and minerals in every diet," added Ms Chitchanok. "Food habits must be balanced to include all the nutrition we need. We can find anything we need in nature without harming animals."